[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":1814},["ShallowReactive",2],{"kb-en-\u002Fkb\u002Fgetting-started\u002Funits":3,"kb-nav-en":1429},{"page":4,"fallback":1419},{"id":5,"title":6,"body":7,"description":1417,"extension":1418,"faq":1419,"meta":1420,"navigation":1421,"ogImage":1422,"order":1423,"path":1424,"raw":1419,"robots":1422,"schemaOrg":1422,"seo":1425,"sitemap":1426,"stem":1427,"__hash__":1428},"content_en\u002Fkb\u002Fgetting-started\u002Funits.md","Units",{"type":8,"value":9,"toc":1407},"minimark",[10,14,19,27,87,90,97,119,126,222,234,238,1051,1058,1062,1072,1084,1088,1095,1153,1164,1168,1171,1224,1227,1230,1317,1321,1400],[11,12,13],"p",{},"Units are the most common cause of a result that is wrong by a factor of a thousand.",[15,16,18],"h2",{"id":17},"how-the-app-handles-them","How the app handles them",[11,20,21,22,26],{},"Internally, everything is ",[23,24,25],"strong",{},"SI",":",[28,29,30,43],"table",{},[31,32,33],"thead",{},[34,35,36,40],"tr",{},[37,38,39],"th",{},"Quantity",[37,41,42],{},"Internal unit",[44,45,46,55,63,71,79],"tbody",{},[34,47,48,52],{},[49,50,51],"td",{},"Force",[49,53,54],{},"N",[34,56,57,60],{},[49,58,59],{},"Length",[49,61,62],{},"m",[34,64,65,68],{},[49,66,67],{},"Moment",[49,69,70],{},"N·m",[34,72,73,76],{},[49,74,75],{},"Stress",[49,77,78],{},"Pa",[34,80,81,84],{},[49,82,83],{},"Density",[49,85,86],{},"kg\u002Fm³",[11,88,89],{},"Every value you type is converted to SI on entry, and back to your project's unit system\nfor display, tables and the report. Two consequences:",[91,92],"kb-figure",{":narrow":93,"alt":94,"caption":95,"src":96},"true","The Unit presets popover listing SI m·kN (kN, m, MPa, selected), SI mm·N (N, mm, MPa), US kip·ft (kip, ft, ksi), US lb·ft (lb, ft, psi) and Custom, with a Project settings link to open the units editor","The unit presets, opened from the unit system at the right of the status bar: SI · m·kN, SI · mm·N, US · kip·ft and US · lb·ft, then Custom, with a Project settings link to set each quantity's unit individually.","\u002Fkb\u002Funits-popover.png",[98,99,100,107],"ul",{},[101,102,103,106],"li",{},[23,104,105],{},"Changing the display units never changes the model."," Switch a project from kN and\nm to N and mm and every number redisplays; nothing is re-entered or rounded.",[101,108,109,112,113,118],{},[23,110,111],{},"The report says what unit every quantity is in."," The project chapter carries a\nlegend for exactly this reason — see ",[114,115,117],"a",{"href":116},"\u002Fkb\u002Freports\u002Fexporting","Exporting a report",".",[11,120,121,122,125],{},"The unit system is chosen when the project is created and can be changed afterwards\nfrom the status bar, where the current system is shown at the right-hand end, or under\n",[23,123,124],{},"Project settings › Units",". Four presets cover every quantity, from forces to section\nmoduli to temperature:",[28,127,128,147],{},[31,129,130],{},[34,131,132,135,138,141,144],{},[37,133,134],{},"Preset",[37,136,137],{},"Force · length · stress",[37,139,140],{},"Line load",[37,142,143],{},"Surface load",[37,145,146],{},"Sections",[44,148,149,168,186,205],{},[34,150,151,156,159,162,165],{},[49,152,153],{},[23,154,155],{},"SI · m·kN",[49,157,158],{},"kN · m · MPa",[49,160,161],{},"kN\u002Fm",[49,163,164],{},"kN\u002Fm²",[49,166,167],{},"mm",[34,169,170,175,178,181,184],{},[49,171,172],{},[23,173,174],{},"SI · mm·N",[49,176,177],{},"N · mm · MPa",[49,179,180],{},"N\u002Fmm",[49,182,183],{},"N\u002Fmm²",[49,185,167],{},[34,187,188,193,196,199,202],{},[49,189,190],{},[23,191,192],{},"US · kip·ft",[49,194,195],{},"kip · ft · ksi",[49,197,198],{},"klf",[49,200,201],{},"psf",[49,203,204],{},"in",[34,206,207,212,215,218,220],{},[49,208,209],{},[23,210,211],{},"US · lb·ft",[49,213,214],{},"lb · ft · psi",[49,216,217],{},"plf",[49,219,201],{},[49,221,204],{},[11,223,224,225,228,229,233],{},"Change any single quantity in the project settings and the system becomes ",[23,226,227],{},"Custom",".\nA new project starts in the units of your browser's region, US customary for an en-US\nbrowser and SI otherwise, and the\n",[114,230,232],{"href":231},"\u002Fkb\u002Fgetting-started\u002Fquickstart","quickstart"," sets it in the first step.",[15,235,237],{"id":236},"where-the-factors-of-a-thousand-come-from","Where the factors of a thousand come from",[28,239,240,249],{},[31,241,242],{},[34,243,244,246],{},[37,245,39],{},[37,247,248],{},"The trap",[44,250,251,709,858,872,890,1027,1039],{},[34,252,253,256],{},[49,254,255],{},"Section properties",[49,257,258,283,284,346,347,362,363],{},[259,260,263],"span",{"className":261},[262],"katex",[259,264,267],{"className":265,"ariaHidden":93},[266],"katex-html",[259,268,271,276],{"className":269},[270],"base",[259,272],{"className":273,"style":275},[274],"strut","height:0.6833em;",[259,277,282],{"className":278,"style":281},[279,280],"mord","mathnormal","margin-right:0.0785em;","I"," in mm⁴ is ",[259,285,287],{"className":286},[262],[259,288,290],{"className":289,"ariaHidden":93},[266],[259,291,293,297,301],{"className":292},[270],[259,294],{"className":295,"style":296},[274],"height:0.8141em;",[259,298,300],{"className":299},[279],"1",[259,302,304,308],{"className":303},[279],[259,305,307],{"className":306},[279],"0",[259,309,312],{"className":310},[311],"msupsub",[259,313,316],{"className":314},[315],"vlist-t",[259,317,320],{"className":318},[319],"vlist-r",[259,321,324],{"className":322,"style":296},[323],"vlist",[259,325,327,332],{"style":326},"top:-3.063em;margin-right:0.05em;",[259,328],{"className":329,"style":331},[330],"pstrut","height:2.7em;",[259,333,339],{"className":334},[335,336,337,338],"sizing","reset-size6","size3","mtight",[259,340,342],{"className":341},[279,338],[259,343,345],{"className":344},[279,338],"12"," times ",[259,348,350],{"className":349},[262],[259,351,353],{"className":352,"ariaHidden":93},[266],[259,354,356,359],{"className":355},[270],[259,357],{"className":358,"style":275},[274],[259,360,282],{"className":361,"style":281},[279,280]," in m⁴. An IPE 400 has ",[259,364,366],{"className":365},[262],[259,367,369,437,504,527,610,629],{"className":368,"ariaHidden":93},[266],[259,370,372,376,424,429,434],{"className":371},[270],[259,373],{"className":374,"style":375},[274],"height:0.9694em;vertical-align:-0.2861em;",[259,377,379,382],{"className":378},[279],[259,380,282],{"className":381,"style":281},[279,280],[259,383,385],{"className":384},[311],[259,386,389,415],{"className":387},[315,388],"vlist-t2",[259,390,392,410],{"className":391},[319],[259,393,396],{"className":394,"style":395},[323],"height:0.1514em;",[259,397,399,402],{"style":398},"top:-2.55em;margin-left:-0.0785em;margin-right:0.05em;",[259,400],{"className":401,"style":331},[330],[259,403,405],{"className":404},[335,336,337,338],[259,406,409],{"className":407,"style":408},[279,280,338],"margin-right:0.0359em;","y",[259,411,414],{"className":412},[413],"vlist-s","​",[259,416,418],{"className":417},[319],[259,419,422],{"className":420,"style":421},[323],"height:0.2861em;",[259,423],{},[259,425],{"className":426,"style":428},[427],"mspace","margin-right:0.2778em;",[259,430,433],{"className":431},[432],"mrel","≈",[259,435],{"className":436,"style":428},[427],[259,438,440,443,447,451,455,459,494,497,501],{"className":439},[270],[259,441],{"className":442,"style":296},[274],[259,444,446],{"className":445},[279],"23",[259,448],{"className":449,"style":450},[427],"margin-right:0.1667em;",[259,452,454],{"className":453},[279],"130",[259,456,458],{"className":457},[427]," ",[259,460,462,470],{"className":461},[279],[259,463,466],{"className":464},[279,465],"text",[259,467,469],{"className":468},[279],"cm",[259,471,473],{"className":472},[311],[259,474,476],{"className":475},[315],[259,477,479],{"className":478},[319],[259,480,482],{"className":481,"style":296},[323],[259,483,484,487],{"style":326},[259,485],{"className":486,"style":331},[330],[259,488,490],{"className":489},[335,336,337,338],[259,491,493],{"className":492},[279,338],"4",[259,495],{"className":496,"style":428},[427],[259,498,500],{"className":499},[432],"=",[259,502],{"className":503,"style":428},[427],[259,505,507,511,515,519,524],{"className":506},[270],[259,508],{"className":509,"style":510},[274],"height:0.7278em;vertical-align:-0.0833em;",[259,512,514],{"className":513},[279],"231.3",[259,516],{"className":517,"style":518},[427],"margin-right:0.2222em;",[259,520,523],{"className":521},[522],"mbin","×",[259,525],{"className":526,"style":518},[427],[259,528,530,533,536,566,569,601,604,607],{"className":529},[270],[259,531],{"className":532,"style":296},[274],[259,534,300],{"className":535},[279],[259,537,539,542],{"className":538},[279],[259,540,307],{"className":541},[279],[259,543,545],{"className":544},[311],[259,546,548],{"className":547},[315],[259,549,551],{"className":550},[319],[259,552,554],{"className":553,"style":296},[323],[259,555,556,559],{"style":326},[259,557],{"className":558,"style":331},[330],[259,560,562],{"className":561},[335,336,337,338],[259,563,565],{"className":564},[279,338],"6",[259,567,458],{"className":568},[427],[259,570,572,578],{"className":571},[279],[259,573,575],{"className":574},[279,465],[259,576,167],{"className":577},[279],[259,579,581],{"className":580},[311],[259,582,584],{"className":583},[315],[259,585,587],{"className":586},[319],[259,588,590],{"className":589,"style":296},[323],[259,591,592,595],{"style":326},[259,593],{"className":594,"style":331},[330],[259,596,598],{"className":597},[335,336,337,338],[259,599,493],{"className":600},[279,338],[259,602],{"className":603,"style":428},[427],[259,605,500],{"className":606},[432],[259,608],{"className":609,"style":428},[427],[259,611,613,616,620,623,626],{"className":612},[270],[259,614],{"className":615,"style":510},[274],[259,617,619],{"className":618},[279],"2.313",[259,621],{"className":622,"style":518},[427],[259,624,523],{"className":625},[522],[259,627],{"className":628,"style":518},[427],[259,630,632,635,638,674,677],{"className":631},[270],[259,633],{"className":634,"style":296},[274],[259,636,300],{"className":637},[279],[259,639,641,644],{"className":640},[279],[259,642,307],{"className":643},[279],[259,645,647],{"className":646},[311],[259,648,650],{"className":649},[315],[259,651,653],{"className":652},[319],[259,654,656],{"className":655,"style":296},[323],[259,657,658,661],{"style":326},[259,659],{"className":660,"style":331},[330],[259,662,664],{"className":663},[335,336,337,338],[259,665,667,671],{"className":666},[279,338],[259,668,670],{"className":669},[279,338],"−",[259,672,493],{"className":673},[279,338],[259,675,458],{"className":676},[427],[259,678,680,686],{"className":679},[279],[259,681,683],{"className":682},[279,465],[259,684,62],{"className":685},[279],[259,687,689],{"className":688},[311],[259,690,692],{"className":691},[315],[259,693,695],{"className":694},[319],[259,696,698],{"className":697,"style":296},[323],[259,699,700,703],{"style":326},[259,701],{"className":702,"style":331},[330],[259,704,706],{"className":705},[335,336,337,338],[259,707,493],{"className":708},[279,338],[34,710,711,714],{},[49,712,713],{},"Young's modulus",[49,715,716,717,857],{},"Steel is ",[259,718,720],{"className":719},[262],[259,721,723,759,787,806],{"className":722,"ariaHidden":93},[266],[259,724,726,729,733,736,740,743,750,753,756],{"className":725},[270],[259,727],{"className":728,"style":275},[274],[259,730,732],{"className":731},[279],"210",[259,734],{"className":735,"style":450},[427],[259,737,739],{"className":738},[279],"000",[259,741,458],{"className":742},[427],[259,744,746],{"className":745},[279,465],[259,747,749],{"className":748},[279],"MPa",[259,751],{"className":752,"style":428},[427],[259,754,500],{"className":755},[432],[259,757],{"className":758,"style":428},[427],[259,760,762,765,768,771,778,781,784],{"className":761},[270],[259,763],{"className":764,"style":275},[274],[259,766,732],{"className":767},[279],[259,769,458],{"className":770},[427],[259,772,774],{"className":773},[279,465],[259,775,777],{"className":776},[279],"GPa",[259,779],{"className":780,"style":428},[427],[259,782,500],{"className":783},[432],[259,785],{"className":786,"style":428},[427],[259,788,790,793,797,800,803],{"className":789},[270],[259,791],{"className":792,"style":510},[274],[259,794,796],{"className":795},[279],"2.1",[259,798],{"className":799,"style":518},[427],[259,801,523],{"className":802},[522],[259,804],{"className":805,"style":518},[427],[259,807,809,812,815,848,851],{"className":808},[270],[259,810],{"className":811,"style":296},[274],[259,813,300],{"className":814},[279],[259,816,818,821],{"className":817},[279],[259,819,307],{"className":820},[279],[259,822,824],{"className":823},[311],[259,825,827],{"className":826},[315],[259,828,830],{"className":829},[319],[259,831,833],{"className":832,"style":296},[323],[259,834,835,838],{"style":326},[259,836],{"className":837,"style":331},[330],[259,839,841],{"className":840},[335,336,337,338],[259,842,844],{"className":843},[279,338],[259,845,847],{"className":846},[279,338],"11",[259,849,458],{"className":850},[427],[259,852,854],{"className":853},[279,465],[259,855,78],{"className":856},[279],". Entering 210 with the wrong unit gives a structure a thousand times too soft",[34,859,860,863],{},[49,861,862],{},"Distributed load",[49,864,865,868,869,871],{},[866,867,161],"code",{}," on a member; ",[866,870,164],{}," on a surface. A slab load applied to a beam needs the tributary width multiplied in",[34,873,874,877],{},[49,875,876],{},"Surface results",[49,878,879,882,883,885,886,889],{},[866,880,881],{},"kNm\u002Fm"," and ",[866,884,161],{},", ",[23,887,888],{},"per unit width",". A slab moment of 45 is 45 kNm per metre of strip, not 45 kNm",[34,891,892,895],{},[49,893,894],{},"Bedding modulus",[49,896,897,900,901,959,960,1016,1017,1019,1020,1022,1023],{},[866,898,899],{},"kN\u002Fm³"," for ",[259,902,904],{"className":903},[262],[259,905,907],{"className":906,"ariaHidden":93},[266],[259,908,910,914],{"className":909},[270],[259,911],{"className":912,"style":913},[274],"height:0.8444em;vertical-align:-0.15em;",[259,915,917,922],{"className":916},[279],[259,918,921],{"className":919,"style":920},[279,280],"margin-right:0.0315em;","k",[259,923,925],{"className":924},[311],[259,926,928,950],{"className":927},[315,388],[259,929,931,947],{"className":930},[319],[259,932,934],{"className":933,"style":395},[323],[259,935,937,940],{"style":936},"top:-2.55em;margin-left:-0.0315em;margin-right:0.05em;",[259,938],{"className":939,"style":331},[330],[259,941,943],{"className":942},[335,336,337,338],[259,944,946],{"className":945},[279,280,338],"s",[259,948,414],{"className":949},[413],[259,951,953],{"className":952},[319],[259,954,957],{"className":955,"style":956},[323],"height:0.15em;",[259,958],{},"; a line support takes ",[259,961,963],{"className":962},[262],[259,964,966],{"className":965,"ariaHidden":93},[266],[259,967,969,972,1012],{"className":968},[270],[259,970],{"className":971,"style":913},[274],[259,973,975,978],{"className":974},[279],[259,976,921],{"className":977,"style":920},[279,280],[259,979,981],{"className":980},[311],[259,982,984,1004],{"className":983},[315,388],[259,985,987,1001],{"className":986},[319],[259,988,990],{"className":989,"style":395},[323],[259,991,992,995],{"style":936},[259,993],{"className":994,"style":331},[330],[259,996,998],{"className":997},[335,336,337,338],[259,999,946],{"className":1000},[279,280,338],[259,1002,414],{"className":1003},[413],[259,1005,1007],{"className":1006},[319],[259,1008,1010],{"className":1009,"style":956},[323],[259,1011],{},[259,1013,1015],{"className":1014},[279,280],"b"," in ",[866,1018,161],{}," per metre, which is ",[866,1021,164],{}," — see ",[114,1024,1026],{"href":1025},"\u002Fkb\u002Fmodeling\u002Felastic-foundations","Elastic foundations",[34,1028,1029,1031],{},[49,1030,83],{},[49,1032,1033,1035,1036,1038],{},[866,1034,86],{}," for mass, but ",[866,1037,899],{}," for self-weight. Steel is 7 850 kg\u002Fm³ ≈ 77 kN\u002Fm³; a density typed as 7.85 (t\u002Fm³) or 78.5 (kN\u002Fm³) gives a structure a thousand or a hundred times too light",[34,1040,1041,1044],{},[49,1042,1043],{},"Rotational springs",[49,1045,1046,1047,1050],{},"Moment per radian (",[866,1048,1049],{},"kNm\u002Frad","), not per degree",[11,1052,1053,1054,118],{},"Sections and materials are defined once and reused, so a mistake in one is repeated\neverywhere the definition is used. When a whole model is off by the same factor, check\nthem first — see ",[114,1055,1057],{"href":1056},"\u002Fkb\u002Fmodeling\u002Fsections-and-materials","Sections and materials",[15,1059,1061],{"id":1060},"per-unit-width-once-more","Per unit width, once more",[11,1063,1064,1065,1067,1068,1071],{},"The most common unit error in slab and wall design is silent: a surface result in ",[866,1066,881],{},"\nread as if it were ",[866,1069,1070],{},"kNm",". The number looks plausible either way, and reinforcement sized\nfrom it is out by the strip width.",[1073,1074,1076],"callout",{"type":1075},"warning",[11,1077,1078,1079,1083],{},"Every contour and table for a surface is per unit width.\n",[114,1080,1082],{"href":1081},"\u002Fkb\u002Freports\u002Freading-diagrams","Reading diagrams"," says so too, because saying it twice is\ncheaper than the alternative.",[15,1085,1087],{"id":1086},"angles-and-directions","Angles and directions",[11,1089,1090,1091,1094],{},"Rotational results and rotational stiffnesses are in ",[23,1092,1093],{},"radians",": a nodal rotation of\n0.002 is 0.002 rad, and a rotational spring is so many kNm per radian. If a rotational\nspring seems to do nothing, check that its stiffness was not worked out per degree:",[259,1096,1099],{"className":1097},[1098],"katex-display",[259,1100,1102],{"className":1101},[262],[259,1103,1105,1134],{"className":1104,"ariaHidden":93},[266],[259,1106,1108,1112,1115,1118,1125,1128,1131],{"className":1107},[270],[259,1109],{"className":1110,"style":1111},[274],"height:1em;vertical-align:-0.25em;",[259,1113,300],{"className":1114},[279],[259,1116,458],{"className":1117},[427],[259,1119,1121],{"className":1120},[279,465],[259,1122,1124],{"className":1123},[279],"kNm\u002Fdeg",[259,1126],{"className":1127,"style":428},[427],[259,1129,433],{"className":1130},[432],[259,1132],{"className":1133,"style":428},[427],[259,1135,1137,1140,1144,1147],{"className":1136},[270],[259,1138],{"className":1139,"style":1111},[274],[259,1141,1143],{"className":1142},[279],"57.3",[259,1145,458],{"className":1146},[427],[259,1148,1150],{"className":1149},[279,465],[259,1151,1049],{"className":1152},[279],[11,1154,1155,1156,1159,1160,118],{},"Direction is not a unit, but it fails the same way. Gravity acts in ",[23,1157,1158],{},"negative global\nZ",". A downward load is a negative value in the global system, or a positive magnitude\nwith a downward direction, depending on how it is applied. A load in a member's local\ndirection acts perpendicular to that member, which on a sloping rafter is not vertical —\nsee ",[114,1161,1163],{"href":1162},"\u002Fkb\u002Floads\u002Fload-cases#local-versus-global-direction","Load cases",[15,1165,1167],{"id":1166},"imperial-and-mixed-practice","Imperial and mixed practice",[11,1169,1170],{},"An AISC design or an ASCE 7 combination set does not require US units; the check reads\nSI internally like everything else and displays whatever the project uses. For the\nprojects that work in US customary units, they are first-class:",[98,1172,1173,1179,1185,1212,1218],{},[101,1174,1175,1178],{},[23,1176,1177],{},"Every printed unit follows the project",": tables, the properties panel, the section\nand material editors, load summaries, captured figures and the report.",[101,1180,1181,1184],{},[23,1182,1183],{},"Line loads are klf or plf",", never kip\u002Fft, so a line load cannot be read as a kip-ft\nmoment.",[101,1186,1187,1190,1191,885,1194,885,1197,1200,1201,1203,1204,1207,1208,1211],{},[23,1188,1189],{},"Feet and inches."," Fields accept ",[866,1192,1193],{},"5'6\"",[866,1195,1196],{},"5'-6 1\u002F2\"",[866,1198,1199],{},"6 1\u002F2\"",", mixed fractions, ",[866,1202,921],{},"\nfor kip and sums such as ",[866,1205,1206],{},"10ft + 6in",". Project settings › Units › ",[23,1209,1210],{},"Write feet as"," can\nshow lengths as feet-inches, to the nearest 1\u002F16\", with a value that does not round\nexactly marked ≈.",[101,1213,1214,1217],{},[23,1215,1216],{},"The AISC Shapes Database v16.0"," is a section library of its own, 1 329 W, M, S, HP, C,\nMC, L, HSS and pipe shapes stored in US units, and A992 is the default steel of a US\nproject. Tees and double angles are not in it yet.",[101,1219,1220,1223],{},[23,1221,1222],{},"Conversions are exact",", to the NIST definition of the pound-force, and the model is\nstored in SI either way, so switching between systems changes nothing but the display.",[11,1225,1226],{},"The section editor's free-form outline is still drawn in millimetres. Where a\nproject mixes sources (a European section table in a US job, a supplier's data sheet in\npsi), convert at the point of entry and note the conversion in the report. Don't carry\ntwo systems in your head.",[11,1228,1229],{},"Useful factors, to four figures:",[28,1231,1232,1245],{},[31,1233,1234],{},[34,1235,1236,1239,1242],{},[37,1237,1238],{},"From",[37,1240,1241],{},"To",[37,1243,1244],{},"Multiply by",[44,1246,1247,1258,1268,1278,1287,1296,1307],{},[34,1248,1249,1252,1255],{},[49,1250,1251],{},"kip",[49,1253,1254],{},"kN",[49,1256,1257],{},"4.448",[34,1259,1260,1263,1265],{},[49,1261,1262],{},"kip·ft",[49,1264,1070],{},[49,1266,1267],{},"1.356",[34,1269,1270,1273,1275],{},[49,1271,1272],{},"ksi",[49,1274,749],{},[49,1276,1277],{},"6.895",[34,1279,1280,1282,1284],{},[49,1281,201],{},[49,1283,164],{},[49,1285,1286],{},"0.04788",[34,1288,1289,1291,1293],{},[49,1290,204],{},[49,1292,167],{},[49,1294,1295],{},"25.40",[34,1297,1298,1301,1304],{},[49,1299,1300],{},"in⁴",[49,1302,1303],{},"cm⁴",[49,1305,1306],{},"41.62",[34,1308,1309,1312,1314],{},[49,1310,1311],{},"kip\u002Fin",[49,1313,161],{},[49,1315,1316],{},"175.1",[15,1318,1320],{"id":1319},"the-three-checks","The three checks",[1073,1322,1325],{"type":1323,"title":1324},"check","Before believing any result",[1326,1327,1328,1334,1394],"ol",{},[101,1329,1330,1333],{},[23,1331,1332],{},"Sum the reactions"," under self-weight alone and compare with the structure's mass\nestimated by hand. A large round factor here (10, 100, 1000) is a density or section unit error.",[101,1335,1336,1339,1340,1393],{},[23,1337,1338],{},"Hand-check one member"," with ",[259,1341,1343],{"className":1342},[262],[259,1344,1346],{"className":1345,"ariaHidden":93},[266],[259,1347,1349,1353,1358,1389],{"className":1348},[270],[259,1350],{"className":1351,"style":1352},[274],"height:1.0641em;vertical-align:-0.25em;",[259,1354,1357],{"className":1355,"style":1356},[279,280],"margin-right:0.0269em;","w",[259,1359,1361,1365],{"className":1360},[279],[259,1362,1364],{"className":1363},[279,280],"L",[259,1366,1368],{"className":1367},[311],[259,1369,1371],{"className":1370},[315],[259,1372,1374],{"className":1373},[319],[259,1375,1377],{"className":1376,"style":296},[323],[259,1378,1379,1382],{"style":326},[259,1380],{"className":1381,"style":331},[330],[259,1383,1385],{"className":1384},[335,336,337,338],[259,1386,1388],{"className":1387},[279,338],"2",[259,1390,1392],{"className":1391},[279],"\u002F8"," on the simplest span. A factor of a thousand\nhere is a modulus or second-moment unit error.",[101,1395,1396,1399],{},[23,1397,1398],{},"Read one deflection"," and ask whether it is plausible in millimetres. Span\u002F250 is\nthe order of magnitude; a metre or a micron is a unit.",[11,1401,1402,1406],{},[114,1403,1405],{"href":1404},"\u002Fkb\u002Fgetting-started\u002Ffirst-analysis","Your first analysis"," works through these on a\nportal frame.",{"title":1408,"searchDepth":1409,"depth":1409,"links":1410},"",2,[1411,1412,1413,1414,1415,1416],{"id":17,"depth":1409,"text":18},{"id":236,"depth":1409,"text":237},{"id":1060,"depth":1409,"text":1061},{"id":1086,"depth":1409,"text":1087},{"id":1166,"depth":1409,"text":1167},{"id":1319,"depth":1409,"text":1320},"How units work in Elementarium — SI inside, your unit system on screen — and the handful of conversions that cause most wrong answers in structural models.","md",false,{},true,null,5,"\u002Fkb\u002Fgetting-started\u002Funits",{"title":6,"description":1417},{"loc":1424},"kb\u002Fgetting-started\u002Funits","ZgiUOsL0APkWxtgV4QoBotire0lVv7CYABgCaGKznqc",{"sections":1430,"extras":1730,"flat":1743},[1431,1460,1500,1519,1553,1584,1611,1638,1665,1692,1707],{"path":1432,"slug":1433,"title":1434,"description":1435,"icon":1436,"articles":1437},"\u002Fkb\u002Fgetting-started","getting-started","Getting started","From an empty tab to a solved, checked structure — the three guides that get you productive in Elementarium.","lucide:rocket",[1438,1442,1445,1449,1453,1457,1458],{"path":1439,"title":1440,"description":1441,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fgetting-started\u002Fkeyboard-shortcuts","Keyboard shortcuts","Every key binding in the workspace, the pointer gestures in the viewports, what the number fields accept, and what the command palette understands.",{"path":231,"title":1443,"description":1444,"translated":1421},"Quickstart","Build a portal frame, load it, solve it and read the bending moment diagram — about ten minutes from an empty tab.",{"path":1446,"title":1447,"description":1448,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fgetting-started\u002Fscope-and-limits","Scope and limits","What Elementarium models, solves and checks today, and what it does not — on one page, before you commit a job to it.",{"path":1450,"title":1451,"description":1452,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fgetting-started\u002Fsystem-requirements","System requirements","Which browsers and devices run Elementarium, how threading affects solve speed, and where the practical ceiling on model size comes from.",{"path":1454,"title":1455,"description":1456,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fgetting-started\u002Finterface-tour","Tour of the workspace","The ribbon, properties panel, dockable viewports, table dock, command palette and status bar — what each part of the editor is for.",{"path":1424,"title":6,"description":1417,"translated":1421},{"path":1404,"title":1405,"description":1459,"translated":1421},"Load cases, combinations and a linear static solve — then how to decide whether the answer is trustworthy.",{"path":1461,"slug":1462,"title":1463,"description":1464,"icon":1465,"articles":1466},"\u002Fkb\u002Fmodeling","modeling","Modeling","Bars, beams, 3D frames, slabs and walls. Geometry, sections, supports and releases that behave like the real structure.","lucide:frame",[1467,1471,1475,1477,1481,1484,1488,1492,1496],{"path":1468,"title":1469,"description":1470,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fmodeling\u002Fbars-beams-and-trusses","Bars, beams and trusses","When a member should be a bar and when a beam, how to model trusses and bracing, and what to do about members that only work in tension.",{"path":1472,"title":1473,"description":1474,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fmodeling\u002Fdrawings-and-snapping","Drawings & snapping","Importing a DXF as a reference underlay, choosing its units and plane, and snapping model geometry onto it accurately.",{"path":1025,"title":1026,"description":1476,"translated":1421},"Grade beams, strip footings and walls on ground as line supports on springs — choosing a subgrade modulus, and where the model stops being true.",{"path":1478,"title":1479,"description":1480,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fmodeling\u002Fplane-frames-in-3d","Plane frames in a 3D solver","When to use the 2D Frame and 2D Truss model types, why a flat structure in a 3D model is a mechanism, and how to restrain it.",{"path":1056,"title":1482,"description":1483,"translated":1421},"Sections & materials","What a section and a material contribute to the stiffness matrix and the design checks, and the values worth checking twice.",{"path":1485,"title":1486,"description":1487,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fmodeling\u002Fsurfaces","Slabs, walls and shells","Modelling surfaces in Elementarium — outlines, openings and thickness, how a beam or a wall attaches to a slab, local axes, and what a surface result means.",{"path":1489,"title":1490,"description":1491,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fmodeling\u002Fstructure-generators","Structure generators","Thirty-five parametric structures — trusses, frames, arches, towers, domes and shells — generated from a few dimensions, with supports and loads.",{"path":1493,"title":1494,"description":1495,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fmodeling\u002Fsupports-and-releases","Supports & releases","Pins, fixities, springs and end releases — what each one does to the stiffness matrix, and when each is right.",{"path":1497,"title":1498,"description":1499,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fmodeling\u002Ffirst-model","Your first model","The modeling loop end to end — geometry, sections, supports and releases — on a structure small enough to check by hand.",{"path":1501,"slug":1502,"title":1503,"description":1504,"icon":1505,"articles":1506},"\u002Fkb\u002Fmeshing","meshing","Meshing","Mesh density, local refinement and the quality checks that tell you when a mesh is fine enough to trust.","lucide:grid-3x3",[1507,1511,1515],{"path":1508,"title":1509,"description":1510,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fmeshing\u002Felement-size","Choosing element size","Starting mesh densities for slabs, walls and rafts, and the convergence test that decides whether a mesh is fine enough.",{"path":1512,"title":1513,"description":1514,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fmeshing\u002Frefinement","Local refinement","Where to spend elements, where not to bother, and how to refine without wrecking element shape.",{"path":1516,"title":1517,"description":1518,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fmeshing\u002Fquality-checks","Mesh quality","Aspect ratio, skew and warping — what degrades a result, what the mesher reports, and how to tell whether the elements you are worried about matter.",{"path":1520,"slug":1521,"title":1522,"description":1523,"icon":1524,"articles":1525},"\u002Fkb\u002Floads","loads","Loads & combinations","Build load cases, generate code combinations automatically and find out which one actually governs.","lucide:arrow-down-to-line",[1526,1530,1534,1538,1541,1545,1549],{"path":1527,"title":1528,"description":1529,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Floads\u002Fasce-7-combinations","ASCE 7 combinations","LRFD and ASD combinations to ASCE 7-22 — how the generator maps your load groups onto D, L, Lr, S, W and E, and pairing them with the AISC check.",{"path":1531,"title":1532,"description":1533,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Floads\u002Fcombinations","Automatic combinations","Generating EN 1990 and ASCE 7 combinations, understanding the equations behind them, and reading the generated set critically.",{"path":1535,"title":1536,"description":1537,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Floads\u002Fenvelopes","Envelopes","Extracting the governing value across dozens of combinations without reading every one — and the traps in doing so.",{"path":1539,"title":1163,"description":1540,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Floads\u002Fload-cases","Actions, self-weight, imposed loads and load arrangements — how to build cases that stay separable.",{"path":1542,"title":1543,"description":1544,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Floads\u002Fload-panels","Load panels","Areas that hand a floor, roof or wall pressure to the members around them as line loads, one way or two way, without meshing a slab.",{"path":1546,"title":1547,"description":1548,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Floads\u002Ftemperature-loads","Temperature loads","Uniform temperature change and through-depth gradients — what each does to a free and a restrained structure, and the coefficients to use.",{"path":1550,"title":1551,"description":1552,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Floads\u002Fwind-and-snow","Wind and snow","Wind to EN 1991-1-4 and snow to EN 1991-1-3, generated on a building envelope — site inputs, recognised roof shapes, the cases produced, and the limits.",{"path":1554,"slug":1555,"title":1556,"description":1557,"icon":1558,"articles":1559},"\u002Fkb\u002Fanalysis","analysis","Analysis types","Linear static, modal, linear buckling and second-order — what each analysis assumes, what it returns and how to read the result.","lucide:activity",[1560,1564,1568,1572,1576,1580],{"path":1561,"title":1562,"description":1563,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fanalysis\u002Fsolvers","Choosing a linear solver","Conjugate gradients with Jacobi, incomplete Cholesky or multigrid, or a direct factorisation — what each does, how to watch it, and when the choice matters.",{"path":1565,"title":1566,"description":1567,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fanalysis\u002Fbuckling","Linear buckling","Critical load factors and buckling shapes — what α_cr means, why it is an upper bound, and how to use it for second-order effects.",{"path":1569,"title":1570,"description":1571,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fanalysis\u002Flinear-static","Linear static analysis","The workhorse analysis — what K u = f actually assumes, what it returns, and where linearity stops being a reasonable model.",{"path":1573,"title":1574,"description":1575,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fanalysis\u002Fmodal","Modal analysis","Natural frequencies and mode shapes — mass modelling, participation factors and what the numbers are good for.",{"path":1577,"title":1578,"description":1579,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fanalysis\u002Fsecond-order","Second-order analysis","P-Δ and P-δ solved by iteration, geometric imperfections to EN 1993-1-1 §5.3, and why a second-order result cannot be superposed.",{"path":1581,"title":1582,"description":1583,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fanalysis\u002Fverification","Verifying the solver","Closed-form cases you can build in ten minutes to test the solver — beams, frames, columns, plates, frequencies — with the expected error of each.",{"path":1585,"slug":1586,"title":1587,"description":1588,"icon":1589,"articles":1590},"\u002Fkb\u002Fdesign-checks","design-checks","Design checks","Utilisation ratios, governing cases and the clause behind every number a check reports.","lucide:clipboard-check",[1591,1595,1599,1603,1607],{"path":1592,"title":1593,"description":1594,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fdesign-checks\u002Fnational-annexes","National annexes","Where nationally determined parameters change the answer, how to select the right annex, and what to state in the report.",{"path":1596,"title":1597,"description":1598,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fdesign-checks\u002Fsection-classification","Section classification","How EN 1993-1-1 Table 5.2 classifies a steel section, why the class depends on the combination, and what the check does with shapes it cannot classify.",{"path":1600,"title":1601,"description":1602,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fdesign-checks\u002Fserviceability","Serviceability checks","Deflection, drift and floor frequency checked member by member at SLS, to the national annexes, EN 1990:2023, IBC, AISC or EN 1995-1-1.",{"path":1604,"title":1605,"description":1606,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fdesign-checks\u002Faisc","Steel — AISC 360","Member strength to Chapters D to H, LRFD or ASD — compression buckling, lateral-torsional buckling and every C_b option written down.",{"path":1608,"title":1609,"description":1610,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fdesign-checks\u002Fsteel","Steel — EN 1993-1-1","Member resistance to §6.2 and §6.3 — what is checked at every station, where buckling lengths come from, and the clauses left to you.",{"path":1612,"slug":1613,"title":1614,"description":1615,"icon":1616,"articles":1617},"\u002Fkb\u002Freports","reports","Results & reports","Diagrams, contours and tables in the viewport, and the calculation package you hand to a reviewer.","lucide:file-chart-column",[1618,1620,1624,1628,1630,1634],{"path":116,"title":117,"description":1619,"translated":1421},"Assembling a calculation package a reviewer can follow — inputs, model, results and checks, in the order a calc package should be.",{"path":1621,"title":1622,"description":1623,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Freports\u002Fifc","IFC structural models","The IFC structural analysis view in and out — what IFC2X3, IFC4 and IFC4X3 files bring, what an export carries, and what IFC cannot say.",{"path":1625,"title":1626,"description":1627,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Freports\u002Fexchange","Import & export formats","IFC structural models and SAF workbooks in and out, DXF as a reference drawing, result tables as CSV or xlsx, and an OOFEM input deck.",{"path":1081,"title":1082,"description":1629,"translated":1421},"Bending, shear and axial diagrams, contour plots and deformed shapes — the conventions behind what you are looking at.",{"path":1631,"title":1632,"description":1633,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Freports\u002Fresult-tables","Result tables","Filtering, sorting and extracting numbers — getting the value you need out of a solved model without scrolling.",{"path":1635,"title":1636,"description":1637,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Freports\u002Freviewing","Reviewing a calculation","For the checking engineer — how to interrogate a model you did not build, what the report guarantees, and the questions to ask first.",{"path":1639,"slug":1640,"title":1641,"description":1642,"icon":1643,"articles":1644},"\u002Fkb\u002Fcollaboration","collaboration","Collaboration & sync","Shared models, real-time editing, and offline edits that merge cleanly when you reconnect.","lucide:users-round",[1645,1649,1653,1657,1661],{"path":1646,"title":1647,"description":1648,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fcollaboration\u002Fcomments","Comments","Threads pinned to nodes, members, plates or points, @mentions, blocking comments that hold up a report, and the notifications they send.",{"path":1650,"title":1651,"description":1652,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fcollaboration\u002Fsharing-projects","Sharing a project","Inviting people to a model, what each role can do, and how to coordinate two engineers in the same structure.",{"path":1654,"title":1655,"description":1656,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fcollaboration\u002Fversion-history","Version history","Automatic checkpoints and named versions — how long they are kept, previewing an earlier state, and restoring it in place or as a new project.",{"path":1658,"title":1659,"description":1660,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fcollaboration\u002Fdevices","Working across devices","One account on every device — how a project follows you from desk to laptop, tablet or phone, and what changes on a small screen.",{"path":1662,"title":1663,"description":1664,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fcollaboration\u002Fworking-offline","Working offline","What keeps working with no connection, what does not, and how offline edits merge when you come back.",{"path":1666,"slug":1667,"title":1668,"description":1669,"icon":1670,"articles":1671},"\u002Fkb\u002Ftheory","theory","Theory notes","The mechanics inside the solver — element formulations, sign conventions, numerical assumptions and their limits.","lucide:sigma",[1672,1676,1680,1684,1688],{"path":1673,"title":1674,"description":1675,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Ftheory\u002Felement-formulations","Element formulations","Degrees of freedom, interpolation and limits for every element type in the solver — what each one can represent and what it cannot.",{"path":1677,"title":1678,"description":1679,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Ftheory\u002Fglossary","Glossary","Finite element and structural terms as Elementarium uses them, from degrees of freedom to MITC4 and utilisation, each linked to its page.",{"path":1681,"title":1682,"description":1683,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Ftheory\u002Fsign-conventions","Sign conventions","Axes, positive directions and how to read a diagram without guessing — the page that prevents most result confusion.",{"path":1685,"title":1686,"description":1687,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Ftheory\u002Fdirect-stiffness-method","The direct stiffness method","How a finite element solver turns a model into K u = f and back — stiffness, transformation, assembly, constraints, solution and recovery.",{"path":1689,"title":1690,"description":1691,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Ftheory\u002Fwinkler-foundations","Winkler foundations","The bedding model behind elastic foundations — what it assumes, how to choose a modulus, and precisely where the idealisation stops being true.",{"path":1693,"slug":1694,"title":1695,"description":1696,"icon":1697,"articles":1698},"\u002Fkb\u002Ftroubleshooting","troubleshooting","Troubleshooting","Solver errors, unstable models and results that look wrong — with the usual causes listed first.","lucide:life-buoy",[1699,1703],{"path":1700,"title":1701,"description":1702,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Ftroubleshooting\u002Fsolver-errors","Solver errors","What each class of solver message means, what usually causes it, and what to do next.",{"path":1704,"title":1705,"description":1706,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Ftroubleshooting\u002Fsingular-stiffness-matrix","Why the solver reports a singular stiffness matrix","The most common solver failure — what singularity means mechanically, the six causes in order of frequency, and how to find yours in minutes.",{"path":1708,"slug":1709,"title":1710,"description":1711,"icon":1712,"articles":1713},"\u002Fkb\u002Faccount","account","Account & billing","Plans, limits, invoices, and what happens to your projects when a subscription ends.","lucide:credit-card",[1714,1718,1722,1726],{"path":1715,"title":1716,"description":1717,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Faccount\u002Finvoices","Invoices & VAT","Billing details, receipts, VAT handling and how to get an invoice your accounts department will accept.",{"path":1719,"title":1720,"description":1721,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Faccount\u002Fcancelling","Pausing or cancelling","How to stop paying without losing your work — what happens to projects, reports and history when a subscription ends.",{"path":1723,"title":1724,"description":1725,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Faccount\u002Fplans","Plans & limits","What the free plan includes, what Pro adds, and how the caps are actually measured.",{"path":1727,"title":1728,"description":1729,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Faccount\u002Fstudent","Student accounts","A larger free tier for students and researchers — verify an academic email address, what it unlocks, and why it is re-confirmed every year.",[1731,1735,1739],{"path":1732,"title":1733,"description":1734,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Ffaq","Frequently asked questions","The questions engineers ask before they trust a new finite element package — answered directly.",{"path":1736,"title":1737,"description":1738,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Frelease-notes","Release notes","What shipped in the tab, and what it changes in your models.",{"path":1740,"title":1741,"description":1742,"translated":1421},"\u002Fkb\u002Fall","All articles","Every article in the Elementarium knowledge base, grouped by 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